Aligning neurofeedback protocols with athletes’ sports training objectives: a systematic review

Abstract
To reach optimal performance, athletes commonly engage in cognitive training. Neurofeedback (NF) can support this process by helping individuals self-regulate neurophysiological activity associated with targeted mental states (e.g., attention). Despite its promising applications in sport, no consensus exists on the effectiveness or optimal design of NF interventions for athletes. This systematic review aims to structure the NF literature according to the objective of each intervention in order to clarify sources of variability in outcomes and extract practical design recommendations. Studies were classified according to their primary objective (improve attentional, affective, or motor abilities) using a hierarchical decision process: titles were considered first, followed by the main dependent variables, and finally the characteristics of the NF protocol when multiple outcomes were reported. The review follows the PRISMA 2020 guidelines and includes 56 studies (1711 participants) identified through Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. Study quality is assessed using the CRED-nf framework. By structuring the literature around functional goals, this review offers a novel contribution to the field. While most studies report positive effects on neurophysiological, attentional, affective, or motor outcomes, only 34% do so relative to passive controls, 18% relative to active controls, and 4% relative to other experimental groups. The limited evidence from active comparisons may reflect both poor methodological reporting (median CRED-nf score 37%), and considerable heterogeneity in protocol design, particularly in neurophysiological markers, instructions, and feedback modalities. Such heterogeneity may contribute to misalignment between intervention design and intended outcomes. Our findings suggest that both specific effects (direct modulation of goal-relevant brain activity) and non-specific effects (e.g., increased attention, engagement) contribute to NF efficiency. Some protocol patterns appear frequently associated with certain performance domains (e.g., sensorimotor rhythm up-regulation for attention abilities enhancement), supporting the value of a goal-driven design approach. However, we recommend future studies adopt rigorous methodological frameworks, such as CRED-nf, to support the development of reproducible and effective NF interventions in sport.

Auteurs Bordeaux Neurocampus